Trends, issues and limits of science in energy use
Principles of energy • National and global energy resources
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Key concepts
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Definitions and limiting factors
Non-renewable resources are finite stores of energy that form over geological time and cannot be replenished on human timescales. Renewable resources are replenished naturally and can supply energy indefinitely if managed correctly. Finite supply and rate of extraction act as primary limiting factors for non-renewables, while intermittency, resource availability and location limit many renewables. Economic cost and technology readiness also act as limiting factors, affecting how quickly a resource can replace another.
Patterns and trends in energy use
Industrial economies show historically high use of coal, oil and natural gas for electricity, heating and transport because of high energy density and established infrastructure. Depletion estimates indicate oil and gas reserves decline on multi-decade timescales and coal reserves last longer, creating a long-term shift away from some fossil fuels as reserves become scarce. Policy and market signals accelerate transitions, exemplified by planned phase-outs of coal-fired stations and growth in gas and renewables as alternatives. Transmission and distribution infrastructure affects which resources dominate electricity generation.
Environmental issues from fossil fuels
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, causing increased greenhouse gas concentrations and global warming. Burning coal emits sulfur dioxide, which reacts with atmospheric water to form acid rain, damaging ecosystems and structures. Air pollutant removal is possible but adds cost; desulfurisation of waste gases requires expensive equipment and operation. Extraction and transport produce local pollution, habitat damage and risk of spills, which compound wider climatic impacts.
Environmental issues from nuclear and non-fossil options
Nuclear power produces low operational carbon emissions but generates radioactive waste that requires long-term management and secure storage. Nuclear incidents cause release of radioactivity with long-lasting environmental and social consequences. Renewable sources generally reduce greenhouse gas emissions but create site-specific impacts: hydropower alters river habitats and flow patterns, wind farms affect bird and bat populations and visual landscape, and bioenergy can compete with land use for food production. Each technology requires evaluation of lifecycle impacts and local environmental trade-offs.
Science identifies issues; limits on action
Scientific methods provide measurement, modelling and peer review to identify emissions, radiological risks and ecosystem effects. Experimental data and monitoring reveal cause→effect relationships and quantify impacts. Scientific evidence does not automatically determine policy. Political priorities, social acceptability, ethical values and economic costs shape which scientific recommendations become implemented. Large-scale deployment of technical solutions requires funding, regulation and public consent, creating constraints on science-led solutions.
Decision trade-offs and mitigation
Mitigation strategies include emissions reduction, cleaner fuels, carbon capture, energy efficiency and changes to consumption patterns. Each strategy involves trade-offs: carbon capture adds cost and technical complexity; renewables need storage or grid upgrades to manage intermittency; energy-efficiency improvements can have rebound effects on demand. Effective mitigation requires integrated planning across technical, economic and social dimensions, with scientific input informing but not dictating final choices.
Key notes
Important points to keep in mind