Environmental impacts of energy resources
Principles of energy • National and global energy resources
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Key concepts
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Greenhouse gases and global warming
Cause: Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Effect: Increased greenhouse gas concentrations trap more outgoing infrared radiation and raise average global temperatures, altering climate patterns and sea levels. Carbon dioxide emissions from burning coal, oil and gas provide the main human cause of recent global warming . Limiting factors: The rate of emissions depends on fuel type, combustion efficiency and the scale of use. Carbon capture technologies and switching to low-carbon sources reduce emissions but add cost and technical complexity.
Air pollution and acid rain
Cause: Burning fuels that contain sulfur or produce particulates releases sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and soot. Effect: Sulfur dioxide reacts with atmospheric water to form acid rain that damages buildings, soils and freshwater ecosystems. Particulates and oxides reduce air quality and harm human health. Burning coal commonly produces sulfur dioxide unless emission controls remove it . Limiting factors: Emission control technologies such as flue-gas desulfurisation reduce sulfur dioxide but increase cost. Fuel choice and combustion control determine pollutant levels.
Radioactivity, nuclear waste and accident risk
Cause: Nuclear fission generates radioactive materials that remain hazardous for long periods. Effect: Improper release or leaks cause radiation exposure that can damage living tissue. Radioactive waste requires secure long-term storage to prevent environmental contamination. Nuclear power generation produces low carbon emissions during operation but raises concerns about waste management and accidental release . Limiting factors: Waste containment, geological disposal and operational safety standards control environmental risk. Background radiation and penetration properties of different radiations determine hazard management strategies .
Land use, habitat loss and biodiversity
Cause: Energy infrastructure requires space for extraction, plants, reservoirs, panels or turbines. Effect: Habitat fragmentation and loss reduce biodiversity and disrupt ecosystems. Large-scale land conversion for bioenergy crops, solar farms or reservoirs causes direct habitat change and can displace species. Hydroelectric dams flood valleys and change river ecosystems, affecting local habitats and species composition . Limiting factors: Site selection, scale of development and mitigation measures such as habitat restoration determine impact severity. Renewable siting near existing disturbed land reduces net habitat loss.
Water impacts and oil spills
Cause: Fuel extraction, transport and some power generation use and contaminate water resources. Oil spills and leaked chemicals enter rivers and seas. Effect: Aquatic ecosystems suffer poisoning, reduced oxygen levels and long recovery times. Hydroelectric reservoirs alter water flow, sediment transport and fish migration, producing ecosystem changes downstream . Limiting factors: Engineering design, monitoring and rapid response procedures limit the scale of spills and operational water impacts.
Intermittency and resource limits
Cause: Some renewables produce electricity only when natural conditions allow, such as wind or sunlight. Effect: Intermittency requires backup generation, storage or grid management, which affects overall emissions and land use. Fossil fuels provide continuous supply but rely on finite reserves that deplete over decades, forcing transitions to other resources . Limiting factors: Energy storage technology, grid flexibility and geographic resource availability determine how much intermittent generation can be used without increasing environmental harm.
Visual, noise and local impacts of renewables
Cause: Wind turbines, large solar farms and pumped-storage facilities alter landscapes and generate operational noise. Effect: Local communities experience visual intrusion, bird and bat collisions near turbines, and noise that causes disturbance. Wind power produces no direct waste products during generation but presents these local environmental and social trade-offs . Limiting factors: Turbine placement, setback distances and design choices reduce visual and wildlife impacts. Public consultation and environmental assessment guide acceptable siting.
Biomass and land-use trade-offs
Cause: Burning biomass releases carbon dioxide and involves growing or collecting organic material. Effect: Biomass can be carbon-neutral over long timescales if regrowth absorbs emissions, but immediate combustion emits CO2 and particulates and may cause deforestation or competition with food crops. Biomass use creates air pollution and significant land-use demands . Limiting factors: Growth rates, scale of cultivation and land availability determine whether biomass reduces or increases net greenhouse gas emissions.
Key notes
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